In the process of analyzing simulated crisis negotiations, a notable observation was made: Crisis negotiators were communicating in ways that, despite their intentions, seemed to counteract their efforts to empathize with and build rapport with subjects. This unexpected discovery was further examined and substantiated through quantitative analysis in Study 2 and 3, leading to the identification of five cognitive biases and a critical insight into the limitations of traditional empathy-based rapport-building techniques. These findings offer valuable contributions to crisis intervention training and fuel the theoretical debate on the role of empathy in establishing rapport.

Projection bias, due to its direct relevance to empathy, was chosen for in-depth exploration. To validate the qualitative outcomes of Study 2 and 3 through alternative methodologies and a distinct participant group, Study 4 employed an online survey engaging 132 individuals, including crisis negotiators, patrol duty police officers, and non-police crisis workers, predominantly from Canada and the United States. The results not only supported the initial findings of Study 2 and 3 but also revealed varying degrees of projection bias across different professional groups, deepening our understanding of how projection bias can hinder effective empathizing. The study discusses practical implications for the training and education of professional crisis intervenors and contributes a new instrument for future research on projection bias.